Biography of Galileo Galilei Essay

Galileo Galilei, a world-renowned physicist, was born in Pisa, Italy on February 15, 1564. He was the oldest of seven children. His father was a musician and wool trader, who wanted his son to study medicine as there was more money in medicine. At age eleven, Galileo was sent off to study in a Jesuit monastery. After four years, Galileo had announced to his father that he wanted to be a monk. This was not exactly what father had in mind, so Galileo was hastily withdrawn from the monastery. In 1581, at the age of 17, he entered the University of Pisa to study medicine, as his father wished but never completed it because of his keen interest in mathematics and philosophy. At age twenty, Galileo noticed a lamp swinging overhead while he was in a cathedral. Curious to find out how long it took the lamp to swing back and forth, he used his pulse to time large and small swings. Galileo discovered something that no one else had ever realized, which was the period of each swing was exactly the same. The law of the pendulum, which would eventually be used to regulate clocks, made Galileo Galilei instantly famous. In 1592, he was appointed to the position of a mathematician at the University of Padua and it was during his time, he began his work on the telescope. While in Padua, he met Marina Gamba and in 1600 their daughter Virginia was born. In 1601 they had another daughter Livia and in 1606 a son Vincenzo. Galileo’s research was specialized in the motion of inclined planes, motion of the pendulum and the motion of freely falling bodies. He is known for his breakthrough discoveries and also his controversial beliefs which allowed for a more modern and practical science. Galileo was the first person to direct a refractive telescope out into the night sky and he decided to study the Moon. One of his largest discoveries was that there were four moons orbiting Jupiter. Another one of Galileo’s observations through his telescope was that the planet Venus went through phase changes similar to our Moon. Galileo had noticed that the observable size of Venus as seen through his telescope is related to the position of the planet relative to the Sun. This observation had pushed Galileo to believe that the Earth and other planets had to revolve around the Sun or it would not be feasible for Venus to have a phase change. This is known as the Copernican System. For Galileo Galilei, saying that the Earth went around the Sun changed everything since he was contradicting the teachings of the Church. While some of the Church’s mathematicians wrote that his observations were clearly correct, many members of the Church believed that he must be wrong and accused him of committing â€Å"heresy†, which was a very serious matter. However, Galileo was found innocent of all charges but was cautioned not to teach the Copernican System. In 1634, while Galileo was under house arrest, his daughter, Virginia died. At this time he began work on his final book, Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations concerning Two New Sciences. This book was smuggled out of Italy and published in Holland. Galileo died early in 1642. Due to his conviction, he was buried obscurely in 1737.

Business Plan For Sunshine Bakery Essay

Sunshine Bakery will be specializing in visually attractive cupcakes and cakes. There has been a significant increase in demand for whimsical, overindulgent and visually stimulating cakes, and Sunshine Bakery will target special events such as weddings, birthdays, christenings, bachelorette parties and stork teas. The Products Sunshine offers a wide range of speciality cakes. All the flavours will be available in both cupcakes or cakes. The different flavours on offer are: vanilla, lemon, strawberry, chocolate, cheesecake, cherry cream and blue berry. Customers Sunshine will focus on three distinct customer segments. The first group is the wedding group. This segment is growing at 15% a year with 32,000 potential customers. The second niche is the parties group. This segment is also growing at 15% with 14,200 potential people. The last group is the individual buyer (walk-in) group. This niche also is growing at 15% with 48,000 possible customers. Management Team Recognizing the importance of human capital, Sunshine has assembled a strong management team. The team is led by Merlin Hull. Merlin comes to Sunshine with 10 years of baking experience. In addition to her industry specific experience, Merlin has had 2 years of management experience. Robert Morgan brings financial skills to Sunshine after a 15 year CPA career. Marlene Hendricks will lead the marketing efforts having participated in her own PR firm. Lastly, Debbie Reitz will be on the team as an assistant baker with over five years of experience. Objectives To establish a working storefront for Sunshine Bakery. To develop the strong presence in the community needed to support sales goals. To develop a full menu by the end of the second quarter. Mission Sunshine Bakery aims to be a cornerstone in the community creating a  neighbourhood atmosphere where customers feel comfortable and become instant regulars.We seek fair and responsible profit, enough to keep the company financially healthy for the long term and to fairly compensate owners and investors for their money and risk. Company Summary Sunshine Bakery will be located in downtown Mellville in a historical building. This downtown district is a very popular destination because of the historical architecture for weekenders and tourists. Company Ownership Currently Sunshine Bakery is a sole proprietorship owned by Merlin Hull. Eventually, as the company becomes established, Sunshine Bakery will apply to be incorporated. Start-up Summary The primary expense to establish the Sunshine Bakery is the mortgage loan estimated at R1,750,000 to purchase the vacant space on 7th street. The building was previously used as a bakery and we plan to buy the used equipment along with the space. This cost is also calculated into the loan estimate. Merlin Hull intends to invest R70,500 of her savings to cover the other cost of start-up. These costs include: Advertising brochures. Bakery ingredients. Insurance. Bakery accessories, i.e. paper bags, cartons, etc. Products Sunshine Bakery provides specialized cakes and cupcakes at premium prices for special occasions. The following flavours will be available vanilla, lemon, strawberry, chocolate, cheesecake, cherry cream and blue berry. Market Analysis Summary Our focus will be to target weddings, birthday parties, Easter celebrations, bachelorette parties and stork teas. Market Segmentation Our target market consists of three groups: The Wedding Group The wedding industry is booming and Sunshine bakery will focus on this group for whom a premium price can be charged for specialized and custom made cakes or cupcakes. The Parties Group This group will probably pre-order a variety of flavours, and it is not such a labour intensive order, because they will probably go for the less expensive option of choosing our standard products. The Individual Buyer or â€Å"Walk-in† Group Sunshine’s premises in the Bellville area, is a very popular destination because of the historical architecture for weekenders and tourists, which makes this segment a lucrative option. We will focus on window display to attract passersby. Target Market Segment Strategy In our target market, we will mainly focus on the â€Å"wedding group† since they will spend the most per order. We expect that the â€Å"parties† and the ‘†individual buyer† group will make up a smaller portion of our customers. We are specifically filling the speciality cakes needs of the â€Å"wedding group†, so we expect the most business from this group. Industry Analysis Sunshine Bakery competes in the Food Services Industry. In addition to competing with other specialized cakes bakeries, it competes with all restaurants, delis, bakeries and supermarkets for a share of its customers’ food expense. Sunshine is most concerned with competitors who differentiate their products and services with a creative and arty focus. Because this group is so large, Sunshine has chosen to limit its analysis to other specialized cakes bakeries. Competition and Buying Patterns Currently there are two bakeries in town that provide specialized cakes: Cupcakes from Heaven Strengths: Stocks freshly baked cupcakes and cakes. Well-  established bakery in town. Sells cakes in local grocery stores. Weaknesses: Does not provide a wide selection of flavours. Furthermore the texture and flavor of their cakes is very dense and lacks zest. Life is Beautiful Patisserie Strengths: Makes cakes and brownies every day. Will make custom-ordered non- gluten cakes. Weaknesses: Does not produce a wide selection or large quantity of cupcakes. Their main focus is traditional flavour large cakes. Strategy and Implementation Summary Our strategy focuses on serving a niche market with quality goods. We are determined to become a part of the community—an establishment that becomes as much of the community as a church or local grocery store. To achieve these goals, we will provide the following: Friendly, neighbourhood-feel atmosphere Quality baked goods for everyone to enjoy at a fair price Visually attractive cakes and cupcakes Coffee sales will be higher in winter months, and for summer months sales of sodas Competitive Edge Our competitive edge is our quality of goods. We use only products of the highest quality that create incredible feathery cakes that can’t be matched. We also focus mainly on whimsical and modern flavours and designs. The other bakeries in town focus on traditional flavours. Sales Strategy Our strategy focuses on building a customer base by providing good customer experience. With the addition of the coffee bar and lunch menu in early spring, we hope to have customers make the bakery their one-stop destination for breakfast or lunch. In the summer, when we open the outdoor patio, more and more customers will make the bakery a destination for their lunches more often since the atmosphere will be so pleasing. Sales Forecast Our sales forecast assumes the following changes: Cake sales in the summer months will be slightly higher since the wedding season is at its peak during summer months. Coffee sales will increase  during winter months. Please insert a Sales forecast graph here, indicating the projected sales for 12 months. Management Summary Merlin Hull is the founder of Sunshine Bakery. She brings to the bakery her experience as a baker and as an entrepreneur. She has worked as a baker for over 10 years including two years as an apprentice in a well-known Paris patisserie. As a teenager she helped her parents at the family’s general store, both in sales and marketing. For her last two years at her family’s store, she was the general employee manager. Her duties at the bakery will include employee hiring and training, head baker and store management. Robert Morgan has run his own successful CPA consulting firm for 15 years. His duties will include the bookkeeping, inventory management and stock fulfilment. Marlene Hendricks runs her own PR company and will be assisting the Sunshine Bakery in its marketing campaigns on a part-time basis.

Globalisation and Americanisation

McNationalizations probably the most obvious in terms of its connection with AmAmericanizationas the McDonald's franchise is a purely American product. Other than the obvious, McNationalizationoncerns the spread of an American product – or in this case, as RiRitzierould argue – a method of supply and demand momodeledn the American fast-food industry.It could be argued that AmAmericanizationinders our understanding of the process of Cultural Appropriation, because Cultural Appropriation usually deals with the taking of aspects of a minority group's culture and adopting these elements into a more dominant cultural group, whereas with AmAmericanizationthe elements of a dominant group (America) are aaopiatento cultural mlmolesterssociety InNineame can De sasalsaor Cultural Imperialism and AmAmericanization/p>Cultural Imperialism describes the process of enforcing a culture or language onto another cultural group, which, in a way, is what Europeans and early Americans during the settlement of America – English became the dominant language of the United States, with an English and European society acting as the foundation of the American society. The native peoples of America were forced out of their homes and forced to interact with the now dominant settlers in English, and adopt a more European way of living – a ChChristianizeswhite way of life.In contemporary society, AmAmericanizationoesn't necessarily help our understanding of this term, as American culture isn't enforced on minority groups around the world, but rather it is slowly adopted by them. In conclusion, the label ‘AmAmericanization as an umbrella term for the cultural, social and economic processes mentioned, helps our understanding of the terms, as it provides a specific, well-known example of an influential, globally dominant culture that ututilizeshe processes for its own global expansion and power.

Did Punk Sell Out Commodification of Popular Music Essay

Did Punk Sell Out Commodification of Popular Music - Essay Example Understanding punk visuals and noises amounts to a historic study of an ideology that was formed out of working class youth mentality on resistance and change and punk rock, may be considered a chief medium with which to channel the content and comprehension of this ideology. Unlike pop culture which concentrates on romantic themes, the songs and rendition of punk execute around the nature of sexuality, moral, and political concerns. When the barrier broke between pop and rock, being an oppositional character, in Britain and U.S. during the mid-to-late 1970s there came a point of fusion among art, pop, and rock, signifying the birth of punk rock. B. Longhurst pointed out that the decline of rock ideals and the activities of some rock stars in the 1960s proceeded for them to be perceived under a capitalist commercial venture which hardly gave followers anymore positive attraction toward rock. This then became a remarkable opportunity for punk to help resolve the crisis by its unique e xistence with the attempt to renew the belief of an active political force present in rock culture [Longhurst]. Despite how the punk subculture has had diversification out of authentic roots, no serious claim can afford denying that it has uniquely lain foundation about itself and beyond. The privilege further extends to molding the distinct coexistence of the black’s rhythm and blues, soul, and ska.

Large TNCs are merely instrumental Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Large TNCs are merely instrumental - Essay Example The redefining of the means of production as well as the production of luxury goods, the overall orientation of the society has changed a lot. Traditionally economics measures the society’s well being through GDP however, it also ignores the personal and social well beings of the individuals. The alternative views however do suggest that economies rather than serving the consumers are actually serving the large corporations. Corporations are not just the entities which fulfill the needs of the consumers but rather the wants of the consumers are created by the corporations so that they can profit from them. By limiting the brands available to the public, corporations however limit the choices available to the consumers hence forcing them to consume their products. This paper will basically argue and debate two opposing views of whether consumers are in control while making their choices or their choices can be reshaped through advertising and other channels which can ultimately create a culture which force consumers to spend. Markets and Consumers Traditional economics focuses on the consumers as a rational individual capable of making decisions based upon rationality. This view therefore also outlines that the choices of the consumers are independent and cannot be influenced. As such corporations as well as advertising can only help the consumers to make better choices. This view therefore outlines that the demands and choices of the consumers are internally generated and the markets can only support the consumers and firms to interact with each other to fulfill these internally generated needs and wants of the consumers. In a market based economy, consumer is considered as a king and based upon the notion of consumer sovereignty the decisions on production are made. As such this view therefore outlines that the demands and supply for the goods and services is primarily driven by the consumer choices with little role or influence from the external actors such as firms and advertising. The role of the firms therefore is just limited to providing what a well informed and rational consumer wants. JK Galbraith in his phenomenal book, The Affluent Society however maintained that it is not always the case that the consumer choices or demands are internally generated. Galbraith therefore believes that these demands and wants have been created through the advertising and what he called machinery for consumer demand creation. Galbraith therefore went on to such suggest that such extravagant spending by the consumers whose choices are largely driven by the advertising put burden on the public spending and investment. (Galbraith, 1998)Â   How corporations affects our choices Galbraith’s analysis suggested that the consumer choices may not be necessarily internally generated as the Post War US economy progressed in a manner which gave enormous power to the corporations. He also argued that the mechanics of consumer demand and supply ar e not just driven by the consumers but by the long term planning by the large corporations also. According to him, large as well as small firms do not just work as instruments to provide what well informed consumers want but rather through advertising they can create the demands.( Galbraith, 1971)Â   This view is radically different from the conventional wisdom in economics because it exposes the vulnerabilities of the assumption of perfect markets. Market based economics works on the basis of the

Proposing a Solution on Texting While Driving Essay

Proposing a Solution on Texting While Driving - Essay Example period. In other words, it amounts to something like a driver covering a length of football field at a speed of 55 mph without looking at the road. In another study carried out in 2008 it has been mentioned that over 800,000 Americans were texting or making calls, during the same year over 6,000 Americans were killed because of distracted driving and cell phone usage is one of the major reasons. Considering the extent of loss to the life that cell phone usage, specifically texting, there has been a Federal ban on texting while driving for commercial vehicle drivers. The defaulters may be subject to fines up to USD 2,750. But even after this ban the scene has not changed significantly. In order to propose a solution to address the issue of texting while driving it may be meaningful to understand the cause that leads the drivers to text. One of the national insurance agencies in America conducted a survey of over 1500 drives, nationwide. As per the findings of the survey, the key reaso n for people to use cell phones while driving is (Deleon) â€Å"social etiquette† demands that people be in constant contact with each other, so people feel pressured to responds immediately to text messages and phone calls.† This issue may be very difficult to be addressed comprehensively by adopting just one solution. Such issues can be addressed by two types of solutions, these are i) technology based solutions and ii) by bringing about a behavioral change in the actors concerned, in this particular case drivers are the key actors. In this paper, I would like to propose a solution that aims at kindling a behavioral change in the drivers. The justification for adopting such an approach is centered on the reason for which the people get urged for texting. The key audience in this proposal is the policy makers and society in general who are usually the drivers of social and behavioral change amongst people. If the audience, as I would propose in the next section, adopts the behavioral change strategies, I believe that there would be a considerable improvement in the statistics pertaining to texting while driving. It is also important to note that the proposal that I present is even though relevant for all drivers, but has specific benefits for commercial vehicle drivers. These are the ones exposed to high risks. The proposal is presented in the table below: Strategies of principle In order to induce a behavioral change amongst commercial drivers, I propose that the telecom companies should mandatorily send Statutory Warning about the dangers of texting while driving (TWD) before each text they send such as â€Å"TWD multiplies the risk of crash incidents by 23 times.† or â€Å"You might not be able to see the person whom you text if you text while driving.† Similar warnings may also be placed on strategic places inside the car. It is the job of the policy makers to ensure that each cellphone operators comply with this regulation. Con sequences of actions The consequences of this solution are anticipated to be: Subconscious learning by every cell user about the fallouts of TWD Advocate and Amplify the cause and risks of TWD Fall in the number of TWD accidents Analogies Advertisers, social marketers and policy makers have successfully applied Statutory Warnings in order to modify behaviors with respect to other unhealthy habits such as smoking, HIV/AIDS, toys using LASERS etc. Texting while driving is already being seen as a one of the unbending issue for all

The Potential for Alternative Fuels in Transport Essay

The Potential for Alternative Fuels in Transport - Essay Example The various regions of the globe and transportation applications may present different challenges requiring different alternative fuels, but the need to preserve the environment and its resources is universal. (Pelkmans, p.1-3) The Associate Director of the Energy Program at Rice University, Amy Myers Jaffe, argues that the situation is more dangerous now than in 1973 or 1979, as the United States is more dependent on the oil from Saudi Arabia and other OPEC countries of uncertain geopolitical stability. "Of the Saudi oil, two-thirds goes through one processing plant and two terminals. " (qtd. in EBS, pars. 3-4) The electric vehicles touted after the oil crisis have not yet made it past the significant hurdles of economic and technical factors. Battery technology has not progressed as predicted, and remains the major weakness in electric vehicles. In the last few years, hybrid vehicles have become available, compromising the fuel-efficiency and environmental benefits of electric vehicles without their long-charging times or short range. Last year, over 86,000 hybrid vehicles were sold in the United States. (Barnitt and Eudy, p. 15) "It turns out that if, in 2025, every car and light truck were as efficient as today's hybrid cars and sports utility vehicles, that would displace two Gulf's worth of oil or a sixth of all the oil in the country," says Amory Lovins, CEO of the Rocky Mountain Institute. (qtd. in EBS, pars. 3-4) The use of alternative fuels, operating within assumptions of current fuel use and oil supplies, are inevitable. (Sperling, DeLuchi and Wang, p. 1) The United States owns only three percent of the world's oil reserves, but consumes 25 percent of the world's oil. There is a concensus that drilling our way to energy independence is not a feasible solution. (EBS, par. 4) The transportation fuel market represents about 53% of the world refinery product demand. If upstream (the fuel used in producing the fuel itself) consumption, asphalt and lubricant use are included, the transportation sector is responsible for about 60%. This share of the oil market is projected to increase in the next decades. The remainder of the oil products are used for heating, the production of plastics and other synthetics, and for the production of electricity. No large-scale substitute displays identical characteristics as oil-based fuels (gasoline and diesel,) and higher quality transport fuel requires highe r energy use in the refining process. The demand for transporation fuel will determine the demand the for crude oil on the whole. There are sufficient oil resources in place for the period up to 2030, provided that sufficient investments and developments are made in oil recovery. (Gielen and Unander, p. 7) The World Energy Outlook 2004 predicts a growth from 77 million barrels per day to 121.3 million barrels per day in 2030, and the OPEC Middle East share in world oil production is predicted to grow from 24.7% to 42.7% by this time. (Gielen and Unander, p. 8) "Until we find a substitute for the internal combustion engine to reduce our dependence on gasoline, we're stuck with imported oil," says Robert Ebel, the Chairman of the Energy Program at the Center for Strategic and

English Essay Confessions of an Economic Hit Man

English Confessions of an Economic Hit Man - Essay Example After having left his job he wrote this book and is nowadays ahead of the movement that proclaims the increase of social, economic and ecological responsibility of businesses. After leaving his job as an economic hit man, Perkins founded the Independent Powers System, Inc. in1980 – a company in a very risky sphere – and later became the defender of the aboriginal rights in Amazonia, published several books on social responsibility, founded several non-profit organisations, among which is a famous Dream Change Coalition that, on the one hand, inspires people to achieve their goals, and on the other – invites them to be extremely careful about how their lives influence the rest of the society and our planet in the whole. All these facts make it obvious that Perkins is sincere in his book, and that it is not a purely PR campaign designed to turn attention to himself but truly precious confessions that make people aware of the crimes performed against the global community by certain structures and separate people. After all, it was not before the September 11, 2001 attacks that John Perkins decided to write about his activity as an econom ic hit man, disregarding all the threats that he had to face. Perkins was firm in his decision to share his knowledge about the contribution of the USA government and multiple global corporations into making these tragic events possible. According to John Perkins, the â€Å"help† that the corporations and other organisations promised to the third-world countries, eventually turned out to be a disaster for people in these countries. Being an economic hit man, John Perkins travelled all over the world and took part in dramatic events of the modern history, including the money washing in Saudi Arabia, the defeat of the Iran Sheikh, the death of Panama President Omar Torrijos, and many others. In his

Financial Reporting Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Financial Reporting Research - Essay Example When making this decision, IAS 8.11 requires the management to show the definitions, recognition procedures, and dimension concepts for assets, incomes, liabilities, expenses and liabilities in the accounting Framework. A good financial statement is one that is understandable to every stakeholder of the company with minimum difficulties, thus financial statements should be simple and easy to understand. Two it should be reliable in that potential investors can rely on it to make decisions. Three it should be easy to compare with other financial statements in the market. Last but not least financial statement should be relevant. The information used in the financial statement should be relevant and material for decision making. Therefore, ambiguous information should be avoided when preparing financial information. This will eliminate any essence of misguide to the stakeholders of the company. Financial reporting standards have been revised severally over years to capture the dynamics in accounting sector. They have reviewed severally to incorporate the emerging trends in global business such as mergers, foreign acquisition among others. Before 2001 the world used to prepare financial statements using international accounting standards (IAS) and any revision on international accounting standards after 2001 is referred to as international financial reporting standard. ( IFRS). According international accounting standard 10 financial statement includes a statement of financial position which shows the total assets of the company, long-term and short term liabilities and the companies equity. Second is the statement of comprehensive income which shows the total revenue and expenditures of the company. Third is the statement of changes in equity, statement of cash flow which shows the ability of the company to pay short term debts and notes to the financial position this provides explanations to the financial statement items. International Accounting Standards Board is charged with mandate of reviewing and revising accounting standards. It comprises of fifteen members drawn across the world. It was formed in 2001 as successor of International Accounting standard committee. It has the responsibility of developing international financial reporting standard and revision of international accounting standard to IFRS. (Wood & Sangster, 2005) According to international financial standards a statement of financial position should have a section of noncurrent assets at cost, their accumulated depreciation and the net book value all shown separately. A section of current asset and current liabilities on separate column and then the working capital of the company are calculated as the difference of current assets and current liabilities. Current assets are those assets that can be converted into cash easily while noncurrent assets are those that are expected to remain in the business for a long period. In this statement there is a section of financing ac tivities which show how the company is financed. The total of noncurrent assets and working capital should always equal to finances of the company. This statement shows the total assets of the company, liabilities of the company both short term and long term

Research Paper Essay Example for Free

Research Paper Essay Facts: Vinny was employed as a grocery clerk in the grocery store of Oscar, his employer.   The incident happened during store hours when a customer in the grocery store was about to deliver a baby.   Vinny in an effort to help the customer allowed the customer to go inside the delivery truck and the customer to the hospital. While they were on their way to the hospital, Vinny run over the dog of Melnick.   Melnick declared that he will file a suit against Oscar and Vinny for killing his dog. Issue: whether the conduct of Vinny was done within the scope of his employment so as to make Oscar liable for the accident under the principle of respondeat superior A. Delivery Case Plaintiff As a rule no person should be held liable for the acts and omissions of another. In some cases, however, the principle of agency between an employer and his employee may create legal liability known as respondeat superior.   It is a common law principle which basically means â€Å"Let the master answer.†Ã‚   It makes the employer liable for the negligent acts and omission of his employee which have caused injury to another provided that the act was done within the scope of his employment.   The theory behind this common law principle is that the principal controls the behavior of his agent and should assume responsibility and liability for the agent’s actions. The plaintiff only has to prove that the conduct falls within the scope of the employee’s employment to establish liability of the employer.   An employees conduct is covered if it is of the kind he is employed to perform, occurs substantially within the authorized time and space limits of the employment, and is actuated, at least in part, by a purpose to serve the employer. In this case, Vinny was at the time on shift and he was in the performance of his duties.   He was inside the grocery store when a customer was about to give birth.   Being in the service industry it was part of his duty to extend the necessary assistance to their customer.   His act of going to the hospital using the company truck was something that is fairly and naturally incident to the business of his employer.   (Sayles v. Piccadilly) Further the conduct of vinny was not something that promoted his own interest but it was motivated by the desire to serve his employer. B. Delivery Case: Defendant For an employer to be held liable under the doctrine of respondeat superior, it must first be proven that the employee conduct bears relationship to the nature of his work.   In determining whether an employee was acting within the scope of employment, the employee’s job description, time and place and purpose of the employee’s act, the conformity of the employee’s act to his assigned task must be examined. As a grocery clerk, Vinny’s function is to assist the customers locate the items they intend to purchase, to help in the packing of the items purchased by the customers and to answer their queries about a particular item in the grocery.   Nowhere did it say in the employee manual that part of the function of the grocery clerk is to send women who are delivering babies to the hospital.   Vinny performed something that he was not supposed to do at the time and place of the accident. The employee did not even inform the store manager, Oscar, that he will be leaving the grocery.   Indeed there was a substantial departure from the nature of the work Vinny was hired to do.   Thus, the liability for the injury he caused to Melnick is his own responsibility and should not be imputed to his employer.

Concepts of Censorship

Concepts of Censorship Censorship There are different types of freedoms or forms of liberations that everyone needs to be able to feel comfortable and accommodated in our society. The intellectual freedom is the right of each individual to access information that is; both receiving and in pursuit exclusive of any restriction or containment. Free expression of ideas at all angles can be termed as intellectual liberty. Most of our democratic communities are supposed to present this liberty for, it is the foundation of social equality and this must comprise the right to posses, obtain and distribute thoughts. Censorship is the control of informatory materials that are seen to be of great threat, dangerous or might bring fierce public debate to a society, a nation or even international. The main information materials censored are films, books, videos and art works which are detached or reserved from free public access. Restraint of materials can also be based on definite audiences depending on age limitations or other distinctiveness. There are certain organizations or individuals that might advocate for the society or children in particular that might be at risk of certain immoralities. Many democracies however have put in place clear regulations stating that; every one has a freedom to read, write, view and express. The library personnel must forever be enthusiastic to edit supplies, for their focal concern is to protect the public from unethical resources. When another person shares out his arguments it is very vital to be considered but not forgetting the other side’s opinion must not be taken for granted and be secluded. The word censorship comes from the Latin word censor, which was an occupation of two Romans whose task was to oversee civic behavior and ethics, consequently monitoring the way inhabitant acted.The act of censorship differs from one material to another. There are many things that we come across, in our every day lives; these could be in books, televisions, radios, the internet and many more. Censorship is believed to be with human since time immemorial and cannot be extricated .Censorship can be traced back from the ancient communities like ancient Rome, Greece and China, where it is believed that around the year 300AD,this was passed as a valid law for checking ethical conducts and opinions of the inhabitants. One of the most remembered historical saga on censorship was in the ancient Greece when Socrates was forced to take poison in the year 399BC for admitting of his involving the young in dishonesty and untraditional divinity.This antique view of suppression, as a compassionate civic check in the most excellent concern of the public, is still in use by many nations in the world and it has along eternal impact on the Soviet Union, for the leaders used censorship for the greatest durable time ever recorded in the 20th century. Censorship as containment has diverse complications, with some censorships targeting matters seen to be filthy or indecent; unorthodox or sacrilegious; treasonable or profane. In consequence, the main aim generally for this art in our societies is to restrain and conceal beneath the disguise of defending the main fundamental public amenities that is; the State, families and churches. For full grasp of censorship, and the desire to censor, it is indispensable to shred away the astonish appellation importance that is emotionally involved to the remark at first declaration. One must be familiar with that suppression and the philosophy behind it goes back to prehistoric period, and that each culture has had mores, norms and rules by which dialogue, clothing, spiritual execution, and sexual appearance were synchronized. As we go back to Ancient Rome, where autonomy of idiom was reticent for those in power and that resulted in writers of subversive articles ruthlessly dealt with, especially Nero the emperor, is in records after setting ablaze books and even expelling many authors. Clear evidence shows that the art of repression has great hereditary from the first democratic state of Greece. Plato was the initial philosopher to devise a validation for academic, spiritual, and creative expurgation that projected any that; unconventional ideas concerning God henceforth taken as criminal acts and that proper trial is recognized to contain profanation. Tales being narrated to children by their mothers could be censored. In our modern world, there are different types of censorships carried out simultaneously, and these are moral, Political, religious, military and corporate censorships (Hellin et al 1986). Religious Censorship The religion censorship actually suppresses the free views that might go against the teachings of the church. It is habitually performed on the foundation of blasphemy, and one known example is that of the author of satanic verses, who was condemned to die by the late Iranian head, Ayatollah .Religious censorship is one of the most responsive parts in both ancient and current censorships and involves some of the most influential denominations enforcing limitations on the lesser ones shunning the progress of the other when feel endangered. It is believed that expression of thoughts candidly was posing a great menace to some Christian and church rulers, following the era of Protestantism and the innovation of printing press, this catapulted both the Catholic Church and the protestant to wage a great war on each other and prompted the Roman church to stiffen censorship on many books that were seen to be ideologically unsafe. In the year1559, Pope Paul IV outlawed some books, which were later carried forward by many of other succeeding popes until later dates. Up this time, there are some books and teachings, which are censored before being allowed to a particular church or denomination. Moral censorship The moral censorship is entirely for family and society interest. There are materials that must be censored before being released to public for children’s’ safety .Prohibition of pornographic and violent film materials are some of the best examples that forces moral censorship to take stage. The US, is complimentary and independent civilization, where freedom of expression is tolerated but some issues concerning censorship especially the Internet freedom has degenerated to a heated debate. Entrance category of substance, made by a governing ability or its legislative body. In conventional documentation surroundings of a library it is very likely to monitor instructional and library media resources foregoing to use by subjecting all such supplies to a sensible assortment criterion, but concerning the Internet it is proving to be tough. Indeed, it is significant to supply affluent materials to scholars and to formulate that in sequence presented is not opposing or else distasteful in scenery. For these grounds,  teachers are accountable to widen the skills essential to examine and appraise assets found on the Internet. It has been established that many children in recent days are accessing the internet, making friends, chatting about social issues meeting adults and their fellow kids. The Internet connection clasp vast information that covers from education to sex related articles that are very awkward for kids to access. Many parents have argued if there could be law that guard children from the Intrenet.The issue of kids accessing the Internet are some of the gains that censorships can deliver. Even though it is unkind to deny our kids their rights but at times when need be, restrictions must be carried out. Indeed this matter must be addressed tactfully, for the Internet can act as an educational library and is helpful to our kids. Political Censorship The suppression, of information that are channeled by a state to a particular news bulletins conduit after trying to cover something ,deforming to give another meaning or fabrication of ideas to conceal the plain truth from the public ,is regarded as censorship of politics. This could be also restraining some views that are contrary to the ruling government. Obviously, the government of the day has every machinery at its disposal to dismantle any civil disobedience. It has the military, the police the secret agents that must make sure compliancy to any directives. This is where political censorship can come in, to repress the opposition. Many governments can even hire reporters to scuttle some grave propaganda among its people to deter the public from the truth of the matter. In the Soviet Union, there was no autonomous journalism that was allowed, until president Gorbachev ascended to power. The communist government only was to release information or its affiliate organization. There was only one newspaper that monopolized the media space.Howerver overseas newspapers that were ultimately allowed supported the regime. Television and radio stations were always under the control of the communists. Foreign broadcasters who were never supportive to the government in any nature found there stations disabled at times. These acts of suppression faded away after the fall of the communists. China still has ideologies of communism and is said to be employing Internet observers of around 30,000 personnel just to monitor the electronic coverage. During the reign of Mussolini, press freedom almost came to an extinct. There was great persistence put in place to fully check the media. The authorities frequently raided journalists and even closing down some of their premises. The Jews were never allowed to publish any paper even journalism was a nightmare to them. South Africa also suffered massively under the apartheid regime whereby a law was introduced to veto any individuals that were against the government, once you were confirmed banned there was no way any newspaper could carry your story or views.Saddam of Iraq also directed the censorship of all press materials. Another Arabic country that is regarded as mainly tyrannical concerning the freedom of expression is Syria. The human rights organizations have been seen in the front line to criticize the government on opinio nated detentions and arrests. The foremost obstruction is the inability to afford the Internet services and the ultimate suppression from the government censorship bodies. In accumulation to maintaining rigid control of service providers, state imposes economic and technological constraints to the users of the Internet (Vaughn et al 1980) Military censorship This can never be overlooked and its history dates back from the first and second world wars. The military intelligence was vital and crucial for any army to succeed in a battle. There were some secrets and strategies of war that were to be practical in keeping ahead of the opponent, and were applied especially when spying on the next move. The Indian troops of the year 1914 were some of the victims of the forces scrutiny in famous western front. There was consistent scrutiny of mails by a band of censors that was instructed to compile seven-day information that commented on the contents of the letters. Several individual letters were collected and then translated. They were containing enclosed names of the sender rank and religion .Many of the soldiers were not educated, and that meant in residing to others for writing of the letters. They were enlisted from the countryside where e education was inadequate. For that reason, they had a frantic time of identifying the corporation clerks who were to write the outgoing and to read the incoming mails. They later found out that the authority was censoring their mails and this prompted some of the soldiers who were educated to change writing tactics. The censors who were intelligent managed to decipher most of the mails written in oblique idiom revealing of their horrors. The US Military censorship was uncommon in the early democracy due to the archaic lines of communications in the forces operation areas. Information received from the facade was never valued for more than a week. When the media fraternity became more complex in later centuries, there was need for scrutiny from the military measures. Telegraphic lines were federalized during the civil war era and this was due antagonism correspondents, that the authority wanted to suppress. The civic demand for current updates piloted the tough contest for the reporters and this saw proficiency in professionalism .Indeed many uncensored news reported were mostly fake, but tolerance was deployed for the authority new, some traces of intelligence could be seen to influence civil opinion. The American war with the Spanish had several efforts of censorship thwarted after a vast logistical failure to conceal violence inflicted by the American troops. The American government also commanded the exchanges from transatlantic that included correspond by mail and the line cable. The information from the entire media fraternity, were subjected to strict cencorship.When the World WarII started, the US government in 1941, had a censor office that scrutinized all the out going and the in coming mails, that most of them had pictures of wounded soldiers and were never wanted to be seen publicly and it was seen these were matters of national interest. Many reporters had to concur and with strict regulations ended up performing individual censorship to avoid victimization. The Vietnam conflict experienced comparatively cordial bond flanked by the forces and the journalists. Incomplete in their aptitude to confine in sequence lacking an affirmation of war, the administration had to pass to the press practically unfettered admission to the combat zone. When the Americans invaded the gulf region, it was certainly, fair giving little restrictions Corporate Censorships The application of negative ideologies to corporate sector has greatly impacted on some victims of corporate suppression to being edged out and rejected to vend merchandise, denial to publicize or airtime defiance has been experienced in the recent years especially in America. Many articles have been denied circulation by corporate bodies in view of tarnishing the media fraternity fearing loses or impeachment. Sports and film bodies have also suffered silently at the mercy of the corporate censorships. Broadminded favoritism in the media is frequent idea to be the result of moderate doctrine and ideas influencing the reporting or variety of news stories. Conformist critics of the media argue that bias exists inside a broad assortment of media channels together with set of connections reports. A survey carried out by an independent body found out that, reporters at state media outlets such as the New York Times, Washington Post, and the broadcast networks, mostly are Democratic voters whose attitudes were well left to the universal community on a selection of topics, counting on social issues such as abortion, positive action, and gay rights. The interviewers recognized their way of expressing some of the debatable matters involving security of nuclear supremacy, school busing to encourage ethnic combination, and the1970s power calamity .their conclusion was that the writers reporting of divisive issues were their own opinions. Obtainable tilt as a mostly insensible procedure of concurring persons analytical on their collective assumptions onto their interpretations of actuality. In assurance, this doomed that information houses engaged principally one party would fabricate equally slanted perception headed for the prejudiced bearing (Sweeney et al 2001).Significantly and disconcerting swing may be mounting concerning the way legislators standardize the media many countries of the world particularly African governments are out to mug the media especially those radio stations broadcasting in ethnic languages, who are always threatened to closure for their oppressors believe they are perpetuating cultural hatred. In one intellect, the dispute for censorship equality is prevailing. Main concern is the menace of incompetent and unprofessional censorship still lurks with the increasing junction of media providers and modern technologies. Expectations are high that established broadcasters will strengthen their fight for the appropriate delivery quality of services to their customers even though, anxiety that is more dictatorial is still being asserted to these classified operators. Nevertheless, certain protections from the law are needed while chances are high that current situations shall be put to rest. General public attitude to recent days can be quantified as saying that in many countries across every diverse sections of expansion, it has never been that easy for immediate custodians of children that is; parents to keep an extra close eye on their kids. It is believed that most frequently censored materials are books, for the majority of them are have many offensive mechanism mainly politics, gender or sexuality cultural background, religious values, or sac rilegious articles or rebellious and might not be appropriate for the children, hence need to be censored. The educational facilities especially libraries are the most vital treasures in any society that value education. They are therefore charged with the full responsibility to both public more so to the children who at no time are required to access any material that might generate a negative attitude, towards their development and later service to the community at large. Censorship as many say could be the restriction of ideas and expressions, but to look at the issue summarily, there specific questions that must be addressed and put back to their order of sequence. It is clear that no parent will allow any kid to pop in the library and come out with a book containing of violent scenes, sexuality, or with a book that actually endorses witch craft or ethnicity. Each an everyone has a great task of ensuring that this general assignment provided by nature be accomplished in the best method applicable. Many hurdles are encountered because strong opposition is met during the removal of unwanted materials that are regarded as risky. Nevertheless, the real victims here are the public. American Library Bill, First Amendment is violated when the removal of books is carried out and actually brings controversial dispute, for people see it as a violation of the act. The subject of restriction of books in schools is sensitively charged, but having known the consequences is always necessary to avoid confrontational issues. When one considers reading any luminous manuscript, shows that we think autonomy of idiom is precious, we must be able to distinguish and crusade about its most composite and vital limits. The culture of censorship must go on but it must be done both morally and professionally. For the librarians they must be prepared for any resistance from various stakeholders because, they might be victimized for avoiding to purchase other uncensored books hence, be seen, as an economic sabotage. It is a collective responsibility for the parents to also confer with the librarians to advice on any materials that are best for our children. For the exposure of uncensored materials might be harmful to the society; and our kids in particular are the most targeted .Definitely it is important for the libraries to have censored books and educational materials, because the benefits out weigh the disadvantages. References Dinton, Robarte k (1991), Middle East war: Westport, Connecticut. Hellion, Danielle C (1985) world wars: the Media and Vietnam. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. Knightly, Philip J (1975) the First Casualty: From the Crimea to Vietnam: The War Correspondent, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Vaughn, Stephen E (1980) Holding Fast the Inner Lines: Democracy Committee on Public Information. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, Sweeney, Michael S. (2000) victory secrets: Censorship and the American Press and Radio in World War II. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

Indonesian Interference In Learning English Cultural Studies Essay

Indonesian Interference In Learning English Cultural Studies Essay Background of the Study Indonesian interference can be found in form of sentences in any aspects such as pronunciation, especially in grammar and vocabulary. Grammar and vocabulary cannot be separated because they are included as the important elements that depend on each other. Students who have the best concepts in grammar, it must be the students have also the knowledge of words. Interference is caused by humans first language or mother tongue that influences a second language. So, interference refers to humans when they use or adapt from their first language to say a word in second or foreign language (www.britishcouncil.org). In teaching and learning grammar and vocabulary, interference of Indonesian can be seen when students put inappropriate words in conscious or not in producing sentences of paragraphs in writing skills or when students do the exercises. This case can be seen in the process of teaching and learning grammar and vocabulary that teachers should remind students about the interference, examples and the characteristics. Therefore, teachers role is needed in the process of teaching and learning Grammar and Vocabulary. Teacher should beware or alert these elements of the interference so that students avoid in doing the interference in the unconsciousness process. Teacher is expected to alert students in the way of telling them before or in the discussing exercises. So, students will know the interference itself especially in producing sentences and will not do the mistakes in lexicogrammar of the language. Interference of Indonesian in the sentences, clauses, phrases were found in students thesis. It has enough evidences that can be concluded as the misunderstanding or not knowing at all about the interference itself. If students did mistakes in usage of words appropriately, it means that students have not had the right or strong concepts in understanding structures of grammar and the usage of words, so it will affect in the writing of the thesis. According to www.britishcouncil.org, lexicogrammatical meant the systematic and predictable manner by human beings when they use language to communicate with one another. It can be said that the sentences, clauses or phrases that are wrong in placing the words or even the usage called lexicogrammatical. It makes a person who read the sentences, clauses or phrases cannot be analyzed or know the meaning exactly because of the systematic itself. Here are the examples of lexicogrammatical that writer got from the websites: (http://images.google.co.id and http://img49.imageshack.us/i/32289191ut1.jpg/) Therefore, the writer is motivated to conduct this research which is aimed to find out whether the process of teaching and learning of Grammar and Vocabulary in JBSI-UNJ include the possibility Indonesian interference. The writer also learns more about the interference of the lexicogrammar in English Grammar and Vocabulary subjects. Research Question Do the process of teaching and learning of Grammar and Vocabulary in JBSI-UNJ include the possibility of Indonesian interference? Purpose of study The purpose of the study is to investigate whether the process of teaching and learning of Grammar and Vocabulary in JBSI-UNJ include the possibility Indonesian interference. Significance of study The objective in this research is to find out whether the process of teaching and learning of Grammar and Vocabulary in JBSI-UNJ include the possibility Indonesian interference. This research is expected to be a suggestion for improving the teaching and learning of English Grammar and Vocabulary at English Department and also for the writer in learning the interference of the lexicogrammar in English Grammar and Vocabulary subjects. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW Lexicogrammatical Features of Language According to www.britishcouncil.org, lexicogrammatical meant the systematic and predictable manner by human beings when they use language to communicate with one another. It is meant that in sentences, clauses or phrases must be systematic in writing so that the message will convey the meaning itself. When the sentences are systematically, it can be understood easily and the communication from the sentence or the message will be delivered well. Whereas, when the systematic are broken in sentences, the message must be not delivered well. So, in producing the writing, someone has to avoid the usage the in appropriate words in sentences that people can understand the meaning is. Hunt stated in http://www.ihes.com/bcn/tt/eltconf/lexico-grammar.pdf that lexicogrammar sees language as meaning conveyance of words working in grammatical parameters. It can be said that the parameters of the conveying of words is part of lexicogrammar. Parameters were used as the benchmarks in writing the sentences. If the sentence are not systematic, it does not convey the meaning of its. In applying or writing thesis, students have to write or use the appropriate words in conveying the message. Students have to use the parameters in producing writing skill. As stated in www.englishforum.com, lexicogramamtical means a combination of vocabulary (lexus) and grammar. Wikipedia adds that lexicon of a language is its vocabulary, including its words and expressions. Usually a lexicon is a container for words belonging to the same language. While grammar is the set of logical and structural rules that govern the composition of sentences, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of rules. From the meaning of each part above, lexicogrammatical consists of vocabulary; how the vocabulary in a language is structured, how people use and store words, how they learn words, the history and evolution of words (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/lexicon), the usage of words and related to the meaning while grammar; the study of the rules of structural in sentences, clauses or phrases. Both of them cannot be separated because the bounded of the meaning and structural. Influences of Mother Tongue in Learning Grammar and Vocabulary Language interference (also known as L1 interference) is the effect of language learners first language on their production of the language they are learning. The effect can be on any aspect of language: grammar, vocabulary, accent, spelling and so on (http://wiki.eflgeek.com/index.php/ESL-wiki/Language-Interference/). Interference happens when learners first language cannot find words to say then they use or adapt from their mother tongue (www.macmillanenglish.com). It means that learners first language can be interfered when they are not able to communicate the second language of conveying in the sentences, clauses and phrases. In learning Grammar and Vocabulary, students maybe interfere in producing sentences, clauses and phrases. The interference can be happened if students are not able to communicate in second language, they still use their mother tongue in conveying the message of the communication itself. So, students have to know the concepts of structural rules of grammar and also the words are used and learned. If they do, they can be avoided from the Indonesian of interference especially in producing sentences. When the relevant unit or structure of both languages is the same, linguistic interference can result in correct language production called positive transfer correct meaning in line with most native speakers notions of acceptability. However, that language interference is most often discussed as a source of errors known as negative transfer. Negative transfer occurs when speakers and writers transfer items and structures that are not the same in both languages (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_transfer). It can be said positive transfer is the transfer that is related to the languages and tend to mutualism aspect. While negative is the transfer which is not related in languages and cannot complete each other. So the function of the language will be error. Teaching Grammar Dixson (2004) explained clearly about the principles of the teaching of modern languages that was discussed at an international seminar organized by UNESCO. The principles are divided into five aspects; Approach to the teaching of all foreign languages-should be primarily oral. In learning foreign language, Dixson emphasized that teacher should teach the language in oral practices. Dixson gave the situations that teachers disable to communicate English well in classroom. He stated that teachers do not have any fluency in English, not have teaching of methods that can be used in oral practice. Teachers in fact only do the translation as the major teaching technique and using the mother tongue as the one of major in communication. Dixson also stated that teachers who poorly paid are one of the reasons why teachers could not teach students to speak. Because this technique needs more energy and enthusiasm to make students are interested. b) Active methods of teaching should be used as far as possible. In this principle, Dixson invited teachers start to teach the oral practice. He also gave the examples; the teacher must participate actively in almost every phase of the lesson. She must give oral drill on all aspects of the grammar. She must teach new vocabulary, not by the simple device of translation, but by the use of pictures, pointing at objects, or explanations in English. She must be careful to keep within the vocabulary range of her students. She uses reading not merely as a passive exercise in understanding but as a source of conversational material as well. She asks questions on the text. She leads the class into whatever conversational channels may present themselves. She continually corrects faulty pronunciation. She tries vigorously to inculcate in her students correct habits of grammar and speech(p.8-9). Teachers start to give the oral practice every part of the language. Teachers must give the exercises that continuously do by students. Therefore, teachers should have enough patience for those exercises in teaching the oral of techniques. Students also can practice their language as well as possible. c) The greatest possible use of the foreign tongue should be made in the classroom. Dixson explained that when teachers use the oral approach and give students the practices in understanding and speaking the language, so that English will be the one of language that is used in our communication. Maybe, teachers face the difficulties in explaining the points of grammar or words in the language and then teachers may be choose to explain it with the native language. But, in other way, teachers must use English in her teaching. Teachers also should make students to speak in English in classroom and continuously pay attention to it. Teachers should keep and do this rule strongly. Dixson stated the reason in his explanation below. It is of great psychological advantage if students feel that they are in an English speaking environment where English is the sole means of communication. In this connection, the teacher should also use only English in such everyday classroom matters as calling the roll, calling upon students to recite, directing students in their various classroom activities etc. Teachers have the important role in using English in classroom. Students can initiate in using English and then they are comfortable in communicating the language. d) The difficulties of the foreign tongue in the matter of pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar should be carefully graded for presentation. Dixson gave some suggests for teacher to teach vocabulary for students in the simplest way of translation. Teachers also teach grammar in the simply way to make students can remember easily and make them also to pronounce. Teachers should monitor students continuously. e) The teaching of a language should be considered more as the imparting of a skill than as the provision of information about the forms of the language. Dixson stated a skill is a capacity developed through prolonged practice and repetition (p.11). Teachers must emphasize the teaching of English in sharpening the skills. So that, teachers will teach the language be fairly free and easy as an acquired skill. Dixson added in his books in teaching grammar, he explained the two main of methods in teaching grammar. They are inductive and deductive methods. He explained them below. Induction is meant a process of learning or teaching whereby numerous examples of a certain principle are presented and the rule is then inferred from these examples. Deduction means starting with the rule and then offering examples to show how the rule applies (p.25). In inductive method of teaching process, teachers give the material that contains the grammar that needs to be studied. After reading the material, teachers can give the statement of the rule that are going to discuss then followed by some exercises. While the deductive approach, teachers can start with giving the rule of the grammar then follow it with practice exercises then proceed to the reading material where the grammar rule is applied in practical form. Dixson added that there are many students who choose the inductive method in learning English. Students meet new material in context first then learn it to understand after that, students proceed to a statement of the rule. Dixson also explained, it does not matter which the two methods that is going to choose to teach in classroom. The main important in teaching grammar is the rule itself. How teacher teach the rule for students and give them some practice so that students can understand and can speak English. Therefore, it is needed teachers role in classroom that must provide the practice, control it continuously and guide it into the appropriate goals. Dixson gave some suggestion for the teachers who are going to teach grammar (p.27-45). First is about English textbook. Dixson suggests teachers to choose the best books for students and analyze the exercises appropriately. For the best result, the exercises should be repeated for several times. Teachers can make the instruction of oral practice in giving the exercises for students and then students will follow it. Second is especially for teacher to provide special oral drills, supplementary to those in the text. In textbooks English, there are many exercises that are provided the grammar part to do. While in oral practice, it is provided rarely. Sometimes, students are able to do the exercises in grammar part, but do not know in using the language itself. Therefore, teachers have to provide students in oral practice. Third is about some methods in process of teaching e.g. The question-answer. Teachers can use this technique through asking the questions that are involved in grammar part. Then students recite answer individually. Use the simple question and can also use the drill methods to make a simple discussion. Teachers can also ask a question then a student answer it. Teachers can make some group then ask them to spoke one minute about the material that day. After students are able to do the step, teachers can add in asking students to answer rapidly. Start with the simple question so that students can catch quickly to what they are supposed to do. The Choral-Method: The Choral Method is another means of teaching language orally, but it is rather widely today. It is particularly good for teaching the aspects of grammar and related to pronunciation or intonation. The grammar forms such as contractions, verb tenses formed with auxiliary verbs, prepositional phrases, exclamatory sentences can often be taught by this method. In using it, teachers can emphasize the rhythm pattern at the same time that teachers teach the grammar principle. For example in teaching contractions, teachers might say, Hell be back at six oclock. Teachers lay stress on the rhythm. The students can repeat the teachers statement following the same rhythm. Teachers can do this step possibly two or three times. Oral grammar: For example teacher is going to teach indirect speech form. Teacher will ask one student Where did John go? Student answers, I dont know where John went. Teacher then asks the second student Does Helen speak English well? Students answer I dont know whether Helen speaks English well. Teachers can use this method for several times until students can answer automatic and sharp. After students are able to do that method, teachers can add the exercises in making some group of them. Teachers give the same question which has just practiced orally. Then, the first group will be a teacher which read the questions and the second group will answer it. After it done, students reverse the role. The teachers can choose the best methods in teaching grammar in classroom. Teachers can take the special techniques in encouraging students to learn the language. The methods are chosen to not make students bore in process of learning grammar. Teachers also should limit the time or period in using the method especially when students are encouraged in doing exercises and enjoying their parts. Diane Larsen explained briefly how to teach grammar and emphasizes the focus on form theory. She said from the research that shown, teachers who focus students attention on linguistic from during communicative interactions are more effective than those who never focus on form or who only do so in contextualized grammar lesson (Spada and Lightbown 1993: Lightbown 1998). It follows, then, that most educators concur with the need to teach grammatical form. However they advise doing so by focusing on form within a meaning-based or communicative approach in order to avoid a return to analytic approaches in which decontextualized language forms were the object of the study. Focusing on grammatical form during communicative interactions rather than forms in isolation (Long 1991) is one way to prevent the pendulum from swinging beyond its point of equilibrium. Teachers are not interested in filling our students head with grammatical paradigms and syntactic rules. If students know all the rules that had ever been written in English but are not able to apply them, teachers would not be doing their job as a teacher. Teaching grammar exactly means to make students be able to use grammatical structure accurately, meaningfully and appropriately. Teacher should think grammar is a skill to be mastered rather than as a rule to be memorized then teachers will teach students in the right way. Harmer (1998) in How to teach English p 1-6 explained the criteria how to be a good teacher. He stated that teacher must be approachable that means students can share their problems to the teachers even tough students do not get along with the subject. Teachers also have an affinity that means she/he can identify with the hopes, aspirations and difficulties of the students while they are teaching. In classroom, teachers not only give their attention to students who dominated by loud, extrovert, bright, teachers should takes efforts to students who dominated by quiet, shy, to get some chances. It means that a good teacher should try and draw out the quiet ones and control the more talkative ones. Teachers also have to learn how to manage students and how to control boisterous classes which is one of the fundamental skills of teaching. The way that teachers talk to students is also the main points to be a good teacher. Harmer added that teachers have to use physical movement; gestures, expressions, mime. It can show happiness and sadness, movement and time sequences. In giving instructions, teachers must be kept as simple as possible and must be logical. It should be clear and well staged. Teachers can check students understanding what they have learnt before giving the instructions. In teaching lesson, teacher should not make the students be bored. It means that teacher have to know the way she/he is wearing, the way they are explaining, the way they are arranging the activities in classroom. Good teachers find a balance between predictable safety and unexpected variety. In arranging plan, teachers have to concentrate on the teachers ability to respond flexibly in classroom, flexible enough to cope the situation [unplanned event], recognize that their plans are only prototypes and they may have to abandon some or all of them if things are going too fast or too slow. From all the explanation above, teachers are equipped in teaching grammar with the several of methods even the best of them that will be chosen. Teacher should give the appropriate and useful exercises for students in order to make students master the grammar and the component. So they have the right concepts in their mind and apply it successfully. Teachers also know how to behave as a teacher in class or outside. The best teacher is a teacher who cares about their students learning than they do about their teaching. Teaching Vocabulary I.S.P Nation (2001) gives the explanation of method in teaching vocabulary. The What is it? technique is a useful way of learning new vocabulary. Teachers gradually communicate the meaning of a word by using it in context. When the learners know the word, they raise their hands and answer it. After that, teachers ask the explanation or translation of the word. When the technique is being used, the learners are interested and paying attention. They are trying to find an answer even though it is not quickly. Still in this book, it explained the techniques of teaching vocabulary; a) Recycled words. Blake and Majors (1995) have described the five procedures; they are; 1.Preteaching of vocabulary, 2.Oral reading of a text containing the vocabulary with discussion of the meaning of the text, 3.Deliberate word study, 4. Vocabulary puzzles, quizzes, or tests, and finally 5.Writing making use of the vocabulary. This procedure moves from receptive use to productive use with a focus on deliberate learning the second-hand cloze. This activity involves three steps: 1; b) the learners read texts containing the target vocabulary, 2. They deliberately study the vocabulary, 3. Learners are then given cloze passages which are summaries of the ones they originally read. In this step the learners are helped to recall the target words by being given a list of L1 equivalents of the target words that they have to translate into L2, and then use to fill the gaps in the cloze text; b) the vocabulary interview. One of the goals of the interview procedure is to make learners aware of the aspects of knowing a word. Another goal is for them to learn new words. This technique is better to used in the process of teaching and learning Vocabulary. This technique not only simple to use or practice but students will get more knowledge about it. It emphasizes the productive skills in learning Vocabulary such as writing, oral reading, quiz, puzzle and so on. It can encourage students because the variety of the steps in understanding the words and also in applying into the real context. In journal of Modern English Teacher volume 10 number 2, Paul Docherty added his explanation and revealed the three ideas for teaching vocabulary. They are; a) Home-made cloze: The procedure is firstly, teachers prepare a list of words that are going to learn that day. Teachers take four or five words randomly then write them on cards and given to students that work in pairs or group. The students task is to make a short paragraph using the words or their derivatives. Teachers should monitor group to group and giving them help when they needed. Students who has decided the paragraph, they re-write it and omit the words originally that given to them. The home-made cloze tests invented by each group that are exchanged and filled in. If there any problem, a student of the group has to explain the meaning of the difficult word and also provide the missing word. A final task is students in group have to make the spelling of the lexis used. So, if the vocabulary will appear on the test tha t students can do in written and oral tests. b) Work with dictionaries; in teaching lexis in classroom, students can and should be encouraged to use dictionaries effectively and efficiently, especially in higher level that will possibly do their work inappropriate language. Paul gave the example in listening skill. In this example, Paul suggested teachers to use a song in improving students vocabulary. According to Paul, this is a very useful skill. Students not only have to decide words appropriately but also the form of the word that they need, which students may increase their confidence in using a dictionary effectively and fixing the words in their memories. Using pictures; Students may use pictures on magazines and pinned on the walls in classroom. Then, students are invited to write what they could see and described it. Teachers can easily check what students have written and make correction if they need. A final task is teachers can choose some pictures and show them at different times of the year. In teaching vocabulary, teachers should also show the meaning of new words. Although many new English words are listed in each lesson or at the end of the text book, it is very important that teachers must give the words meaning and provide definitions in English, use words which the class can understand. In dealing with individual words, the teacher has really a choice of four techniques: (a) to explain the meaning of the difficult words, either by translation, or by giving an explanation or gloss in simpler English; (b) to simply ignore the word, unless a question about it is raised by the students; (c) to get the students to check up the target words in their dictionaries; (d) to try to get the students to guess or infer the meaning through context, morphemes or word association (Retrieved from http://docs.google.com/gview?a=vq=cache:lmeSCg4k97kJ:www.linguist.org.cn/doc/uc200803/uc20080308.pdf+teaching+vocabulary+techniques+in+collegehl=engld) In http://www.slideshare.net/irwyn12/basics-of-teaching-vocabulary-1556430 edition June 2009, it is stated the basic of teaching vocabulary is explained that teacher should teach clearly and not have complicated explanation. Teachers also must to relate the present teaching to the past by showing the pattern so that students will understand clearly. In explaining, teachers should use oral and written techniques. Teachers write on the whiteboard while explaining the material. Then, teachers should give the attention to students who already partly known. Learning Grammar Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999) explained the learners of grammar. They stated that learners should not learn only the structures and master it, but they should learn it consistently Learning is a gradual process involving the mapping of form, meaning and use; structures do not spring forth in learners inter language fully developed and error-free Learners have to master the structures because sometimes students still use and apply in wrong way. In this condition, teacher should not despair for what students do. The best way to learn English, one of the most useful tools that they use grammar exercises. Such a grammar exercise is a specialized tool to learn English, with the aim to challenge and expand a persons knowledge about grammar. While it is necessary to learn the rules of grammar, there is really no substitute for learning English through grammar exercises. Students have to exercise themselves in doing grammar exercises, memorize the pattern and apply the structure into the sentences. Learning the grammar of a language will enable students understand how sentences are constructed and to construct your own sentences (http://www.alljapaneseallthetime.com/blog/). Learning to arrange the words in the correct order is probably one of the most important and useful things students will learn after pronunciation and vocabulary. Harmer (1998) p.10 explained the characteristics of learners in classroom; Learners have a willingness to listen in the sense of paying attention, listen to the English that is being used and soak it up with eagerness and intelligence. A willingness to experiment: learners who extrovert or not must have same conceptions to be successful learners in taking risks, trying it out, and see how it works. A willingness to ask questions: asking/finding out something is part of a successful learners equipment. Good teachers will respond the learners who try to ask something. Good learners also have to do it. A willingness to think about how to learn: good learners will bring their own study when they are studying. For examples learners have to read an article, translating every word, quickly, trying to get the message of the text. A willingness to accept correction: good learners are prepared to be corrected by their teachers. Teachers will give feedbacks for their responds. So, learners will do appropriately. From the explanation above, learners who know well about grammar, must be learn it consistently and will apply the concept in the right way. Learners are expected to be active in classroom for the four skills and have to able to master all. Applying the rules of grammar in those skills will make learners be creative and have the strong components of the process in their thinking. It means that learners themselves to think about the concepts or knowledge appropriate of the process itself. So, if learners are success in the process of their thinking, learners will also successfully mastering grammar and enable to apply the concept of their knowledge in doing exercises. Learning vocabulary Learning vocabulary is a very important part of learning a language. The more words students know, the more they will be able to understand what they hear and read; and the better they will be able to say what they want to when speaking or writing. Nunan (2003) explained that students are asked to learn from meaning-focused input. It means that the learning involves the listening and reading skills. The goal is students need to know 98 percent of the running words already. So, students will know exactly the usage of each word such in sentence, clauses or even phrases. Hu and Nation (2000) added that in learning vocabulary, students should be only one unknown words in every fifty running words. It concludes that students memories are strong enough in the words that have ever been in their mind. Secondly, deliberate meaning which is called form-focused instruction, language-focused learning or language study. Learners are asked to learn new vocabulary by memorizing their first language translations. Learners should give their attention to sounds, spelling, vocabulary, grammar etc. So that students always add the new words in their mind and do not meet the difficulties in comprehending text or in understanding the meaning of the text. CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This chapter presents the methodology applied in conducting the study that provides an explanation of how the study is planned and conducted in order to answer the research question that ask to what extent the tutors questioning techniques effect the learners in language production. 3.1 Research Procedure In conducting this study, first the researcher finds the background of the study. Based on the background of the study, the researcher identifies the problem identification and the purpose of the study. In order to collect the data in observing classes, the researcher attends the meeting of classes and records the process of teaching and learning in classrooms while making notes in the process are held. After making notes, the researcher makes data explanations and correc

The Sole MExican :: essays research papers

Tank: Press Circle(6), R1, L2, L1, Triangle, Circle, Triangle during game play. A message will confirm correct code entry. The tank will appear in front of you. This may be repeated as many times as needed. Information in this section was contributed by SionYoung via Grub Fisher, Justin, Adam Santilllana, James Henderson, and others. Dodo car: Press Right, R2, Circle, R1, L2, Down, L1, R1 during game play. A message will confirm correct code entry. Information in this section was contributed by Gxp via WISBIZKIT69, Adam Santilllana, Carl Buckley, and others. No wanted level: Press R2(2), L1, R2, Up, Down, Up, Down, Up, Down during game play. A message will confirm correct code entry. Note: Saving the game will make the effects of this code permanent. Information in this section was contributed by Adam Santilllana, Woody Woody, Carl Buckley, and others. Higher wanted level: Press R2(2), L1, R2, Left, Right, Left, Right, Left during game play. A message will confirm correct code entry. Note: Saving the game will make the effects of this code permanent. Information in this section was contributed by Adam Santilllana, Carl Buckley, and others. All weapons: Press R2(2), L1, R2, Left, Down, Right, Up, Left, Down, Right, Up during game play. A message will confirm correct code entry. Repeat this code for more ammunition. Information in this section was contributed by Adam Santilllana, John Wooley, Carl Buckley, and others. To get unlimited ammunition, enable the "All weapons" code continuously until whatever you want is at 9999 shots. The next time your clip runs out, it will reload automatically but the magazine (9999) will stay the same. Information in this section was contributed by Michel Soucy. Full health: Press R2(2), L1, R1, Left, Down, Right, Up, Left, Down, Right, Up during game play. A message will confirm correct code entry. Information in this section was contributed by Adam Santilllana, John Wooley, Carl Buckley, and others. If your vehicle is on fire, enable the "Full health" code to extinguish it. Information in this section was contributed by Rene Arrezola. Full armor: Press R2(2), L1, L2, Left, Down, Right, Up, Left, Down, Right, Up during game play. A message will confirm correct code entry. Information in this section was contributed by Adam Santilllana, John Wooley, Carl Buckley, and others. More money: Press R2(2), L1, L1, Left, Down, Right, Up, Left, Down, Right, Up during game play. A message will confirm correct code entry. Information in this section was contributed by Adam Santilllana, Carl Buckley, and others. The Sole MExican :: essays research papers Tank: Press Circle(6), R1, L2, L1, Triangle, Circle, Triangle during game play. A message will confirm correct code entry. The tank will appear in front of you. This may be repeated as many times as needed. Information in this section was contributed by SionYoung via Grub Fisher, Justin, Adam Santilllana, James Henderson, and others. Dodo car: Press Right, R2, Circle, R1, L2, Down, L1, R1 during game play. A message will confirm correct code entry. Information in this section was contributed by Gxp via WISBIZKIT69, Adam Santilllana, Carl Buckley, and others. No wanted level: Press R2(2), L1, R2, Up, Down, Up, Down, Up, Down during game play. A message will confirm correct code entry. Note: Saving the game will make the effects of this code permanent. Information in this section was contributed by Adam Santilllana, Woody Woody, Carl Buckley, and others. Higher wanted level: Press R2(2), L1, R2, Left, Right, Left, Right, Left during game play. A message will confirm correct code entry. Note: Saving the game will make the effects of this code permanent. Information in this section was contributed by Adam Santilllana, Carl Buckley, and others. All weapons: Press R2(2), L1, R2, Left, Down, Right, Up, Left, Down, Right, Up during game play. A message will confirm correct code entry. Repeat this code for more ammunition. Information in this section was contributed by Adam Santilllana, John Wooley, Carl Buckley, and others. To get unlimited ammunition, enable the "All weapons" code continuously until whatever you want is at 9999 shots. The next time your clip runs out, it will reload automatically but the magazine (9999) will stay the same. Information in this section was contributed by Michel Soucy. Full health: Press R2(2), L1, R1, Left, Down, Right, Up, Left, Down, Right, Up during game play. A message will confirm correct code entry. Information in this section was contributed by Adam Santilllana, John Wooley, Carl Buckley, and others. If your vehicle is on fire, enable the "Full health" code to extinguish it. Information in this section was contributed by Rene Arrezola. Full armor: Press R2(2), L1, L2, Left, Down, Right, Up, Left, Down, Right, Up during game play. A message will confirm correct code entry. Information in this section was contributed by Adam Santilllana, John Wooley, Carl Buckley, and others. More money: Press R2(2), L1, L1, Left, Down, Right, Up, Left, Down, Right, Up during game play. A message will confirm correct code entry. Information in this section was contributed by Adam Santilllana, Carl Buckley, and others.

Statue of Liberty Ribbon Essays -- Architecture History

Statue of Liberty Ribbon The Statue of Liberty has served as the single most important symbol of the friendship between the two countries and the ideal of democracy since its unveiling on October 28, 1886. At the time it was the tallest structure in America. The statue was originally a gift to the United States. The relationship between the two countries dates back before the United States was an independent country (Kotler p7). The French were one of the first to explore and settle in North America. Louis Jolliet and Jaques Marquette traveled the Mississippi. Renà © Robert Cavelier, sieur de La Salle explored the Great Lakes and established Louisiana. Frenchmen built outposts on the Gulf of Mexico, founded New Orleans, and colonized New France from Louisiana to northeast Canada. In the War of Independence, the Marquis de Lafayette fought with General George Washington. In its final battle at Yorktown, General Jean Baptiste de Rochambeau led the French navy and a land crew. Without French support a victory may have been impossible. The United States returned these favors during t...

Psychology and Personality Essay

The study of personality has a broad and varied history in psychology with an abundance of theoretical traditions. The major theories include dispositional trait perspective, psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, behaviorist, and social learning perspective. However, many researchers and psychologists do not explicitly identify themselves with a certain perspective and instead take an eclectic approach. Research in this area is empirically driven, such as dimensional models, based on multivariate statistics, such as factor analysis, or emphasizes theory development, such as that of the psychodynamic theory. There is also a substantial emphasis on the applied field of personality testing. In psychological education and training, the study of the nature of personality and its psychological development is usually reviewed as a prerequisite to courses in abnormal psychology or clinical psychology. Personality Paper Personality is connected with Darwin’s Theory of Evolution. It generally explains why there are personality differences between individuals.[ Schacter, Daniel; Gilbert, Daniel; Wegner, Daniel (2011).] Personality also refers to the pattern of thoughts, feelings, social adjustments, and behaviors consistently exhibited over time that strongly influences one’s expectations, self-perceptions, values, and attitudes. It also predicts human reactions to other people, problems, and stress.[ Winnie, J.F. & Gittinger, J.W. (1973)][ Krauskopf, C.J. & Saunders, D.R, (1994)] There is still no universal consensus on the definition of â€Å"personality† in psychology. Gordon Allport described two major ways to study personality: the nomothetic and the idiographic. Nomothetic psychology seeks general laws that can be applied to many different people, such as the principle of self-actualization or the trait of extraversion. Idiographic psychology is an attempt to understand the unique aspects of a particular individual. The study of personality has a broad and varied history in psychology with an abundance of theoretical traditions. The major theories include dispositional trait perspective, psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, behaviorist, and social learning perspective. However, many researchers and psychologists do not explicitly identify themselves with a certain perspective and instead take an eclectic approach. Research in this area is empirically driven, such as dimensional models, based on multivariate statistics, such as factor analysis, or emphasizes theory development, such as that of the psychodynamic theory. There is also a substantial emphasis on the applied field of personality testing. In psychological education and training, the study of the nature of personality and its psychological development is usually reviewed as a prerequisite to courses in abnormal psychology or clinical psychology. Perspectives of Personality Many of the ideas developed by historical and modern personality theorists stem from the basic philosophical assumptions they hold. The study of personality is not a purely empirical discipline, as it brings in elements of art, science, and philosophy to draw general conclusions. Freedom versus determinism This idea seeks to answer whether humans have control over their own behavior and understand the motives behind it or our behavior is causally determined by forces beyond our control. Behavior is categorized as being unconscious, environmental, or biological by various theories. [Engler, Barbara (2008)]. Heredity versus environment Personality is thought to be determined largely by genetics and biology, by environment and experiences, or by some combination resulting thereof. Contemporary research suggests that most personality traits are based on the joint influence of genetics and environment. One of the forerunners in this arena is C. Robert Cloninger, who pioneered the Temperament and Character model.[ Engler, Barbara (2008).] Uniqueness versus universality This is the argument discussing the extent of each human’s individuality Uniqueness or similarity in nature Universality. Gordon Allport, Abraham Maslow, and Carl Rogers were all advocates of the uniqueness of individuals. Behaviorists and cognitive theorists, in contrast, emphasize the importance of universal principles, such as reinforcement and self-efficacy.[ Engler, Barbara (2008).] Optimistic versus pessimistic Personality theories differ with regard to whether humans are integral in the changing of their own personalities. Theories that place a great deal of emphasis on learning are often more optimistic than those that do not. [Engler, Barbara (2008)]. Three Theories of Personality Development The study of personality is based on the essential insight that all people are similar in some ways, yet different in others.[ Phares, E.J.; Chaplin, W.F. (1997).] There have been many different definitions of personality proposed. However, many contemporary psychologists agree on the following definition: Personality is that pattern of characteristic thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguishes one person from another and that persists over time and situations. [Phares, E.J.; Chaplin, W.F. (1997)]. Trait theories According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association, personality traits are â€Å"enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contexts.† Theorists generally assume that a) traits are relatively stable over time, b) traits differ among individuals, and c) traits influence behavior. They consistently are used in order to help define people as a whole. Traits are relatively constant; they do not usually change. Traits are also bipolar; they vary along a continuum between one extreme and the other (e.g. friendly vs. unfriendly).[ Feist, Jess Feist, Gregory J. (2009).] Behaviorist theories Behaviorists explain personality in terms of the effects external stimuli have on behavior. The approaches used to analyze the behavioral aspect of personality are known as behavioral theories or learning-conditioning theories. These approaches were a radical shift away from Freudian philosophy. One of the major tenets of this concentration of personality psychology is a strong emphasis on scientific thinking and experimentation. Humanistic theories Humanistic psychology emphasizes that people have free will and that this plays an active role in determining how they behave. Humanistic therapy typically relies on the client for information of the past and its effect on the present, therefore the client dictates the type of guidance the therapist may initiate. This allows for an individualized approach to therapy. Personality Tests There are two major types of personality tests, projective and objective. Projective tests assume personality is primarily unconscious and assess an individual by how he or she responds to an ambiguous stimulus, such as an ink blot. Projective tests have been in use for about 60 years and continue to be used today. Objective tests assume personality is consciously accessible and measure it by self-report questionnaires. Research on psychological assessment has generally found objective tests are more valid and reliable than projective tests. Critics have pointed to the Forer effect to suggest some of these appear to be more accurate and discriminating than they really are. Issues within Testing Issues with these tests include, false reporting because there is no way to tell if an individual is answering a question honestly or accurately. Conclusion There are many theories on how a person develops a certain type of personality. A person’s personality is what defines them in all aspects of their life. People believe that you are molded into what you are today, but theories have proven that some people lead by example and some learn by example. If anyone is curious as to what type of personality they have, there are my types of assessments available to take that can tell you.